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Proto-Wayal
<< Back to Conlangs Characteristics Proto-Wayal has a series of distinguishable characteristics regarding North Nekturian. *'kw' and gw change to k''' and '''g, respectively. *syllabic consonants R''', '''L, M''' and '''N are reduced to a simple a'''. Phonology Consonants Vowels Vowels are: Distinction between long and short vowels is completely lost. Morphology Nouns There are two gender of nouns: masculine and feminine. Old neuter nouns have changed to masculine. Nouns are declined according to two numbers: singular and plural, and to five cases, viz.: #Nominative / Accusative (subject of stative verbs / direct object) #Dative (indirect object) #Genitive (possessive) #Locative #Ergative (subject of action verbs) Masculine Nouns | |} Feminine Nouns | |} Adjectives Adjectives follow the same declension as nouns. Examples: '''muppu "new", kamtu "great" Comparative Form Superiority The suffix '-el-' is added to the stem of the adjective, resulting in a new adjective. Ex.: *'kamtu' "large", kamtelu "larger" *'muppu' "new", muppelu "newer" *'punnu' "good", punnelu "better" Equality Inferiority Superlative The suffix '-evn-' is added to the stem of the adjective, resulting in a new adjective. Ex.: *'kamtu' "large", kamtevnu "the largest" *'muppu' "new", muppevnu "the newest" *'punnu' "good", punnevnu "the best" Pronouns Pronouns follow the same declension system used for nouns and adjectives, with little differences in some forms. Personal Althou? there are dual forms for all pronouns, they were not always used, plural forms being preferred. Dual forms were used mostly when the speaker wanted to emphasize the fact that the elements were exactly two. 1st and 2nd person pronouns have special forms, while the 3d person pronoun follows the regular noun endings. 1st and 2nd Person Pronuns | |} Possessive Possessive pronouns are declined like any other adjective. Demonstrative *'iviwu' "this" (very near) *'histu' "this" (not so near) *'giru' "that" (far) *'hu, he, hi' "this", "that" and also "the" Interrogative *'ghiwu' "what" *'nu' "who" *'gogru' "which" *'gune' "how" *'hatir' "where" *'gatu' "when" Relative *'ghiwu' "that" *'nu' "who" Indefinite *'hakanu' "some", "any" *'mamanu' "no", "none" *'duttu' "all", "every" *'ghettu' "each", "every" Numbers Cardinal Numbers *0 salu *1 hanu *2 tuwe *3 delves *4 gedel *5 vagu *6 zihev *7 vadi *8 hedu *9 mupi *10 tav *11 hatavs *12 tuttavs *13 delvetavs *14 gohedeltavs *15 vagutavs *16 zidtavs *17 vadtavs *18 hedtavs *19 muptavs *20 padi *21 padi hanu *30 dade *40 gohade *50 vagade *60 zihevade *70 vadade *80 udade *90 mupade *100 vanu Ordinal Numbers Ordinal numbers are regular adjectives. *1 banu *2 vikadu *3 davihu *4 gohadu *5 vagadu *6 zihevu *7 vadenu *8 udeppu *9 mupamu *10 tavenu Conjunctions Coordinating *'nehis' "for" *'gi', goy "and" *'maha' "nor" *'vat', nez, bulN "but" *'uho' "or" *'ihad' "yet" *'evna' "so" Correlative *'hapu … gi … ' "both … and … " *'uho … uho … ' "either … or … " *'mahen … mahen … ' "neither … nor … " *'ewu … vat … ' "not … but … " *'vu … dapa … ' "not only … but also … " Subordinating *'tibew' "after" *'gadot' "although" *'vi' "if" *'vad' "unless" *'yuk' "so that" *'bada' "therefore" *'bisa' "in spite of", "despite" *'nehis' "because" Verbs The old Active voice is used only for stative verbs (like "be", "seem", "lie down", "be ill" and so on). The old Passive voice is used for action verbs, but always with an active meaning. "Continuous" tenses have been completely lost. Concepts Each verb has a root that is expanded with a thematic vowel (e''' or '''i). To this theme (root+vowel) are added tense and personal suffixes. Sample Conjugation: petiol "see" Here is the full conjugation of the verb pet-i-ol "see", both in stative and in action conjugations. In the stative conjugation the meaning is something like "to be able to see", "have the sense of vision", while in the action conjugation it properly means "to see (something)". Stative Conjugation Indicative =Present = =Perfective = =Aorist = =Imperfective = =Pluperfect = =Future = =Future Perfect = Participle =Present = *'pet-i-adu' =Perfective = *'pet-i-tu' =Aorist = *'pet-i-stu' =Imperfective = *'pet-i-ttiwu' =Pluperfect = *'pet-i-lanu' =Future = *'pet-i-dolu' =Future Perfect = *'pet-i-lettu' Imperative Active Conjugation Indicative =Present = =Perfective = =Aorist = =Imperfective = =Pluperfect = =Future = =Future Perfect = Participle =Present = *'pet-i-yeu' =Perfective = *'pet-i-teyu' =Aorist = *'pet-i-steyu' =Imperfective = *'pet-i-tteyu' =Pluperfect = *'pet-i-layu' =Future = *'pet-i-doyu' =Future Perfect = *'pet-i-lteyu' Imperative Vocabulary *Swadesh List: Here we give the Swadesh List for Proto-Wayal. Sample *"Duttuves unanuves meviya repluves, se tekmetetor gi telihedunves. Eyenves dimna lesewe gi gasehasehe, gi tipna eseol hanu uholluk ispeledor hanatetik." **''("All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.")''